Academy of Athens. Greece
By Thomas Wolf, www.foto-tw.de, CC BY-SA 3.0 de, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=45676407

Greek Philosophers & Philosophical Schools of Thought

While working on my current series, Exploring Philosophical Eschatology: Cosmology, Creation, and End Times Across Global Belief Systems, I found myself embarking on a deepening and fascinating side journey into the world of early Christianity. My curiosity led me to explore not only the foundational texts and teachings of Christianity but also the broader context of the time—the world Jesus lived in and what shaped the minds of its people.

This includes delving into the lives and educational influences of the Bible's writers. Understanding their personal journeys and intellectual environments can help illuminate how their thoughts and writings were shaped.

In addition to exploring global belief systems as part of my eschatology series, I’ll be sharing insights from this exciting side adventure. Together, we’ll uncover the connections between Greek philosophical schools of thought as well as the cultural and intellectual climate surrounding the birth of Christianity.

During Jesus’ lifetime (approximately 4 BCE–30 CE)*, Greek philosophy continued to play a profound influential role across the Mediterranean world, even though the classical Greek philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle had passed away centuries earlier. This period was rich with cultural exchanges under the Roman Empire. It had several Hellenistic philosophical schools and thinkers that were still active helping to shape thoughts of this time period.

*His birthdate is estimated to be around 4 BCE according to Matthew 2:1.

Here's an exploration of the key figures and schools of thought from that era:

Interaction with Early Christianity

Early Christianity, particularly in its formative years, was interspersed with Greek philosophical thought to articulate and expand its teachings, often adapting its message to diverse audiences in these traditions. Teachers like Paul incorporated philosophical concepts selectively, using them to communicate Christian teachings effectively. This blend helped to pave the way for Christianity to address both Jewish and Greek (Gentile) audiences while distinguishing its message as transformative and distinct from existing philosophical schools.

Philosophical Summary in Context of Paul’s Time (1st Century CE)

Stoicism and Middle Platonism were flourishing and heavily influenced intellectual circles.
Cynicism, while declining, was still present, especially in urban centers.
Platonism served as the philosophical foundation, continuing to inspire and alter schools like Middle Platonism.
While Pythagoras, Socrates, and Aristotle, amongst others, lived before this time, their intellectual traditions significantly influenced the schools and thinkers that followed.

These philosophical movements provided a vibrant intellectual environment in which Paul crafted his theological teachings. Let’s dig in to examine more about this influence.

Paul of Tarsus: A Bridge Between Cultures

Paul of Tarsus (modern-day Turkey), originally known as Saul, was a Jewish Pharisee and Roman citizen who became one of the most influential figures in early Christianity after a deeply profound mystical spiritual experience on the road to Damascus. As an apostle, Paul played a critical role in spreading Christianity beyond its Jewish roots, focusing his mission on Gentile communities throughout the Roman Empire. His letters, or epistles, form a significant portion of the New Testament. These writings provide the theological foundations for Christian doctrine. Paul’s writings reflect his Jewish heritage while also engaging with Greek philosophical concepts, which he adapted to communicate the Gospel to a diverse audience. By integrating ideas from Stoicism, Platonism, and other schools of thought, Paul was able to articulate Christian teachings on morality, human nature, and the divine in ways that resonated with the Greco-Roman world.

**Paul**

“Be kind and compassionate to one another, forgiving each other, just as in Christ God forgave you.”
“Love is patient. love is kind. It does not envy anyone or anything. Love never boasts and it’s never proud. Love is not rude, It’s not self-serving, self-absorbed, or conceited. Love is not easily provoked to anger. It doesn’t hold grudges nor does it keep records of who was right and who was wrong. Love does not consult with evil instead it rejoices in the truth. Love always trusts. Love always hopes. Love always perseveres. And love never fails.”

St. Paul by Peter Paul Rubens
Peter Paul Rubens , Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Reconstruction of the Acropolis and Areopagus in Athens (1846)
Leo von Klenze , Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Paul in Athens (50-52 CE) His Second Missionary Journey

Acts 17:16-19: Now while Paul was waiting for them at Athens, his spirit was provoked within him as he saw that the city was full of idols. So he reasoned in the synagogue with the Jews and devout persons and in the marketplace every day with those who happened to be there. Some of the Epicurean and Stoic philosophers also conversed with him. And some said, “What does this babbler wish to say?” Others said “He seems to be a preacher of foreign divinities” - because he was preaching Jesus and the resurrection. And they took him and brought him to the Areopagus*, saying “May we know what this new teaching is that you are presenting?”

*Aeropagus - is a place where they would go to discuss legal, philosophical, and religious discourse in Greek culture.

Ancient Greek Beliefs

The ancient Greeks practiced a polytheistic religion centered on a collection or pantheon of gods and goddesses who were believed to reside on Mount Olympus, led by Zeus. These deities were thought to govern various aspects of the natural world and human life, such as love (Aphrodite), war (Ares), wisdom (Athena), and the sea (Poseidon). Greek religion was deeply intertwined with mythology, which provided narratives about the gods' origins, relationships, and interactions with humans. Worship involved rituals, sacrifices, festivals, and prayers conducted at temples, household altars, and public spaces. The Greeks also believed in the afterlife, with many works of art illustrating the realms like the Underworld ruled by Hades. Additionally, practices like consulting oracles (e.g., the Oracle of Delphi) reflected their belief in divine intervention and guidance. Greek religion emphasized harmony with the gods and the community rather than strict moral codes. Their belief system shaped a worldview that valued myth, ritual, and civic participation over strict adherence to doctrine.

Greek Philosophy’s Influence on the Roman Empire

Philo of Alexandria (c. 20 BCE–50 CE)

A Jewish philosopher heavily influenced by Greek philosophy, particularly Platonism and Stoicism. Philo attempted to harmonize Jewish theology with Greek philosophical ideas, using allegorical interpretation to explain the Hebrew Scriptures. Though not Greek by ethnicity, Philo represents a key example of the fusion of Greek philosophy and other traditions during this period.

**Philo of Alexandria**

“Be kind, for everyone you meet is fighting a great battle.”
“…the limit of happiness is the presence of God, which completely fills the whole soul with his incorporeal and eternal light.”
“Learning is by nature curiosity…prying into everything, reluctant to leave anything, material or immaterial, unexplained.”

Seneca the Younger (4 BCE–65 CE)

A Roman Stoic philosopher, statesman, and playwright, who lived during the same time as Jesus. His Stoic writings focused on ethics, virtue, and self-discipline. He wrote about the importance of living harmoniously with nature and accepting one’s fate. His writings were influential in the Roman Empire and beyond. While Seneca was not Greek, his philosophy drew heavily from earlier Greek Stoics like Zeno, Cleanthes, and Chrysippus.

**Seneca**

“Begin at once to live, and count each separate day as a separate life.”
“True wisdom comes to each of us when we realize how little we understand about life, ourselves, and the world around us.”
“Anger, if not restrained, is frequently more hurtful to us than the injury that provokes it.”

Bust of Seneca, XVIIth century

Jean-Pol GRANDMONT, CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons

Cicero (106 - 43 BCE)

By the time of Jesus, Greek philosophical traditions had been integrated into Roman education and culture. Philosophers like Cicero (106–43 BCE) had earlier adapted Greek philosophy into Latin, making it more accessible to a broader audience in the Roman world.

**Marcus Tullius Cicero**

“A room without books is like a body without a soul.”
“Gratitude is not only the greatest of all virtues but the parent of all others.”
“Silence is one of the greatest arts of conversation.”

Bust of Cicero

José Luiz Bernardes Ribeiro / CC BY-SA 4.0

Philosophical Schools of Thought & Prominent Greek Philosophers

**Zeno of Citium - Stoic**

“Well-being is attained little by little, and nevertheless is no little thing itself.”
“Man conquers the world by conquering himself.”
“We have two ears and one mouth, so we should listen more than we say.”

Zeno of Citium
Paolo Monti , CC BY-SA 4.0 , via Wikimedia Commons

Stoicism Overview

Zeno of Citium (c. 300 BCE)

Stoicism is a Hellenistic school of philosophy founded by Zeno of Citium in Athens around 300 BCE. It emphasizes living in harmony with nature, cultivating virtue, and maintaining a rational mindset in the face of life's challenges. Central to Stoicism is the belief that happiness (or eudaimonia, often translated as flourishing) is achieved through the development of inner virtues rather than external circumstances or material wealth.

Core Principles of Stoicism:

Virtue as the Highest Good: moral virtue—characterized by wisdom, courage, justice, and temperance—is the only true source of happiness.
Living According to Nature: aligning one's life with reason and the natural order of the universe.
Control and Acceptance: the distinction between what is within our control (our thoughts, emotions, and actions) and what is not (external events). The key to tranquility is focusing on what we can control and accepting what we cannot with equanimity.
The Role of Logos: view the universe as an interconnected whole, governed by a rational principle or divine reason known as logos, which infuses the universe with order and meaning.
Emotional Resilience: emphasizes mastering emotions, seeing destructive emotions like anger or fear as products of irrational judgments. By cultivating rational thinking, one can achieve a state of emotional balance and tranquility (ataraxia).

Paul’s Approach to Stoicism

Ethics and Virtue: Stoicism’s emphasis on living a virtuous life, self-control, and the moral law within resonates with Paul's teachings.
Romans 7:14-25: Paul discusses the struggle between the flesh and the spirit, which could resonate with Stoic discussions about living according to nature (or reason) versus passions. However, Paul’s perspective is deeply theological since he is examining it from a place of sin and grace. Stoicism approaches it from a philosophical and rational standpoint., making their foundations somewhat different with a thematic parallel.
Universal Brotherhood: The Stoic notion of universal brotherhood is based on the shared rationality and common nature of humans sharing in a common nature which fosters equality and unity.
1 Corinthians 12:12-27 reflected this in Paul’s vision of the church as one body. Paul’s vision of the church is that of one body that is grounded in spiritual fellowship through Christ rather than the philosophical idea of shared rationality and natural law.

**Plato - Platonism**

“The measure of a man is what he does with power.”
“I am trying to think, don’t confuse me with facts.”
“The madness of love is the greatest of heaven’s blessings.”

Plato. Luni marble, copy of the portrait made by Silanion ca. 370 BC for the Academia in Athens.

Platonism & Middle Platonism Overview

Plato (427 - 347 BCE)

Platonism refers to the original teachings and ideas of Plato, while Middle Platonism (approximately 80 BCE–250 CE) is a later development that adapted and expanded on Plato’s philosophy with influences from other philosophical traditions.

Platonism centers on Plato’s ideas about the nature of reality, knowledge, and the ideal forms that support the material world. Platonism profoundly influenced Western philosophy, shaping concepts of metaphysics, ethics, and epistemology.

Plutarch (c. 46–120 CE)

Middle Platonism is the development of Plato’s ideas that combined elements of Stoicism and other philosophies. Philosophers like Plutarch aimed to interpret Plato in light of new philosophical developments.

Core Principles of Platonism:

Theory of Forms: Central to Platonism is the belief in a transcendent realm of Forms or Ideas, which are perfect, unchanging paradigms of the imperfect and transient objects we encounter in the material world. For example, the Form of Beauty represents the essence of beauty itself, untouched by the subjectivity or variability of physical appearances.
Dualism: Platonism distinguishes between two realms; the material world (the realm of change and imperfection) and the immaterial world of Forms (the realm of perfection and eternity). This dualistic worldview often regards the physical body as a temporary vessel for the immortal soul.
Knowledge and Reason: Plato argued that true knowledge is not from sensory experiences, instead it comes from reason and intellectual insight.
Ethics and the Good: Platonism emphasizes the pursuit of the ultimate Form, the Good, which is the source of all existence and truth. Living virtuously means aligning oneself with the Good through reason, self-discipline, and the pursuit of wisdom.
Immortality of the Soul: Plato believed that the soul preexists the body and continues to exist after death where it then participates in the eternal realm of Forms.

Platonism's Dualism:

In classical Platonism, there is a clear separation between the material world (which is seen as imperfect and inferior) and the spiritual world (which is perfect and transcendent). This dualism emphasizes the soul's quest to return to the realm of ideal Forms, and it often frames the material world as a temporary or flawed state.

Paul’s Dualism:

Paul uses dualistic language, especially in terms of contrasting the flesh (human nature, often associated with sin and the material world) and the spirit (divine influence, transformation, and eternal life).
Galatians 5:16-26: Paul contrasts the "works of the flesh" with the "fruit of the Spirit." While this language does echo Platonic dualism, Paul’s framework is rooted in Christian theology, where the "flesh" is not merely a physical realm but represents sin and human weakness, while the "spirit" reflects God's transformative power.
1 Corinthians 15: Paul teaches about the resurrection body in a way that reflects some of the Platonic ideas, such as the immortality of the soul and transformation. However, Paul’s teaching goes beyond this to emphasize the transformation of the entire person—body and soul—into a glorified, immortal form. This contrasts with Platonic thought, which typically views the soul as immortal and the body as something to be discarded or transcended. In Christianity, the body is not rejected but is also transformed and glorified in the resurrection.

The parallels with Platonic dualism are accurate in a general sense, but Paul’s dualism is distinctly theological, with a focus on sin, salvation, and resurrection, while Platonism focuses more on the separation between the ideal (spiritual world) and the physical world.

Platonic Allegory:

In Platonic thought, allegorical interpretation of myths and stories is common, as Plato often used allegories (like the Allegory of the Cave) to illustrate deeper philosophical truths about reality, knowledge, and the soul.

Paul’s Allegory:

Galatians 4:21-31 Paul uses an allegorical interpretation of the story of Hagar and Sarah, utilizing a spiritual lesson from the Old Testament narrative. This can be compared to the Platonic method of interpreting myths to uncover higher truths. However, Paul's allegory is rooted in the context of Christian salvation history, contrasting the old covenant (Hagar) with the new covenant (Sarah). While the method is similar, Paul’s purpose is theological, revealing the difference between law and grace, rather than a purely philosophical or mystical insight.

Platonic Mysticism:

Mysticism in the Platonic tradition, especially in later developments like Neoplatonism, often focuses on the soul’s ascent to a higher reality or union with the divine through contemplation and intellectual understanding.

Paul’s Mysticism:

Colossians 1:27 While Paul does express mystical themes, such as experiencing union with Christ and spiritual transformation (e.g., "Christ in you, the hope of glory"), his mysticism is deeply rooted in Christian doctrines of grace, salvation, and the work of the Holy Spirit, rather than in intellectual or philosophical ascent to higher realms of knowledge.

**Plutarch - Cynicism**

“The mind is not a vessel to be filled, but a fire to be kindled.”
“The whole of life is but a moment of time. It is our duty. therefore to use it, not misuse it.”
“Do not speak of your happiness to one less fortunate than yourself.”

Plutarch writing the history of Pompey: Gnaeus Pompeius Sextus Strabo and his son Pompey

Cynicism Overview

Plutarch (c. 46–120 CE)

Cynicism is the development of Plato’s ideas that combined elements of Stoicism and other philosophies. Cynics advocated for a life of natural simplicity, rejecting societal conventions. Their influence continued in the Roman world and possibly impacted ascetic practices as seen in early Christian communities.

Cynic Self-Sufficiency (Autarkeia):

Cynics value autarkeia, the ability to be self-reliant and content regardless of external circumstances. This quality was seen as essential for living a virtuous life.

Paul’s Contentment

Philippians 4:11-13 Paul’s statements about being content in all circumstances resonate strongly with the Cynic ideal of autarkeia. His assertion that he can do all things "through him [Christ] who strengthens me" adds a distinctly Christian perspective, attributing his contentment not to human effort or philosophical principles but to divine empowerment.
While the expression of contentment aligns with Cynic teachings, Paul attributes his self-sufficiency to his relationship with Christ rather than a philosophical commitment to independence or virtue.

**Pyrrho of Elis - Skepticism**

“The things themselves are equally indifferent, and unstable, and indeterminate, and therefore neither our senses nor our opinions are either true or false.”
“True wealth is not measured by material possessions, but by the richness of one’s inner life.”

Pyrrho of Elis, Roman copy (2nd century BC). The bronze Greek original was from the 4th century.
Zde, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons

Skepticism Overview

Pyrrho of Elis (c. 365–275 BCE)

Skepticism is associated with Pyrrho of Elis, this school questioned the certainty of knowledge, encouraging suspension of judgment. The school’s approach to doubt and inquiry was still influential in intellectual discussions during this period.

1 Corinthians 1:20-25: Paul questions the value of human wisdom and philosophy when he writes: "Where is the wise person? Where is the teacher of the law? Where is the philosopher of this age? Has not God made foolish the wisdom of the world?"

Here Paul adopts a skeptical stance toward the reliance on human wisdom and philosophical systems, arguing that true wisdom is found in the message of Christ, which seems foolish to the worldly-minded but is the power of God to those who believe.

This skepticism aligns with a philosophical approach that doubts the sufficiency of human reason alone to grasp ultimate truth, redirecting the focus to divine revelation as the source of true understanding.

More Influences from the Greek Schools of Thought:

Greek Rhetorical Techniques:

Paul demonstrates a mastery of rhetorical styles common in Greek and Roman education. His letters often include structured arguments, logical progression, and emotional appeals, attributes of effective rhetoric.
Use of Diatribe: The diatribe style, characterized by rhetorical questions, imaginary interlocutors, and back-and-forth argumentation, is evident in Paul’s letters.
Romans 3:1-9: "Someone might argue, ‘If my falsehood enhances God’s truthfulness and so increases his glory, why am I still condemned as a sinner?’ Why not say—as some slanderously claim that we say—‘Let us do evil that good may result’? Their condemnation is just!"
In this instance, Paul addresses a potential objection that could arise from his teachings about God's glory being magnified through human sin. He anticipates someone arguing that if sin glorifies God, sinners should not be condemned—or, worse, that doing evil could be justified to produce good.
Paul sharply rejects this argument, calling it slanderous and affirming that such reasoning is worthy of condemnation. This hypothetical style reflects the influence of Greek rhetorical methods, helping Paul address misunderstandings and strengthen his case.

Natural Law:

Stoic Ideas of Natural Law:

Stoics taught that natural law is an inherent moral principle accessible to all humans through reason, guiding them to live in harmony with nature and the divine order. This idea of a universal, innate morality resonated widely in the Greco-Roman world.
Romans 2:14-15: Paul’s mention of Gentiles who “do not have the law but do by nature what the law requires” aligns conceptually with Stoic ideas of natural law. However, Paul frames this within a theological context, emphasizing that this innate sense of morality reflects God’s law written on the heart. While there is a thematic resemblance, Paul’s use of natural law serves to highlight God’s sovereignty and universal judgment rather than advancing a Stoic philosophical argument.

Caveats:

Syncretism refers to the blending or merging of different religious, cultural, or philosophical beliefs and practices into a cohesive system. It often occurs when diverse traditions interact, leading to the incorporation of elements from one system into another.

Key Features of Syncretism:

Religious Syncretism:
In religion, syncretism can involve combining practices, rituals, or beliefs from different faiths. For example:
- The blending of Greco-Roman religious practices with early Christianity in the Roman Empire.
- The fusion of indigenous traditions with Christianity in Latin America.
Philosophical Syncretism:
Philosophical syncretism involves merging ideas from different schools of thought. Middle Platonism, for instance, blended Platonic, Aristotelian, and Stoic ideas.

Example in Christianity:

In the early church, syncretism was often a topic of debate. While some early Christians, like Paul, used Greek philosophical terms and concepts to explain the Gospel, they were careful to avoid compromising the core tenets of their faith.

In essence, syncretism highlights the dynamic interplay between distinct traditions and how they influence each other to create something new.

Selective Use of Greek Philosophy: Paul’s engagement with Greek philosophy was not systematic. His primary source of authority was Jewish scripture, and his theological foundation was deeply rooted in the Jewish tradition. However, Paul’s missionary work among Gentiles required him to communicate in terms that resonated with a Greco-Roman audience. To do so, he sometimes borrowed language, concepts, and methods from Greek philosophy to articulate Christian teachings.
Acts 17:28: "For in him we live and move and have our being." This quote is from the Greek poet Epimenides and is a part of Paul's speech to the Athenians at the Areopagus. By referencing a well-known Greek poet, Paul connects with his audience's intellectual framework and cultural context. He uses this to establish a common ground with the Athenians, demonstrating an understanding of their philosophical and religious ideas.
However, Paul quickly redirects the conversation toward Christian doctrine, explaining that the true God, in whom "we live and move and have our being," is not represented by idols or made from human hands. This approach shows his skillful use of Greek culture to introduce the gospel message in a relatable way while maintaining the integrity of Christian theology.

**Paul**

“Bless those who persecute you, bless and do not curse.”
“We cannot repay evil for evil. Evil can only be overcome with good.”
“I am already being poured out like a drink offering, and the time has come for my departure.” (his last words)

St. Paul by Pierre-Etienne Monnot. Nave of the Basilica of St. John Lateran (Rome)
Jastrow, CC BY 2.5, via Wikimedia Commons

Paul’s Critique of Greek Philosophy

Paul was critical of Greek philosophical ideas when they conflicted with Christian doctrine. For example:

Personal God: Greek philosophical traditions, particularly Platonism and Stoicism, often viewed the divine as an impersonal principle or force (e.g., the Stoic logos). Paul emphasized a personal, relational God actively involved in human affairs.
Resurrection of the Body: The concept of bodily resurrection was at odds with many Greek philosophical views, which often regarded the body as inferior or a prison for the soul. Paul strongly defended the Christian teaching of the resurrection.

In summary, Paul drew from Stoicism, Platonism, and Cynicism to frame his theological arguments, using these philosophical ideas to bridge cultural gaps and to articulate Christian beliefs in a way that would resonate with his diverse audiences. He always prioritized his theological goals, using philosophical concepts only to support and explain Christian teachings, rather than altering his Christian teachings to fit philosophy. He did not hesitate to critique or reject ideas that contradicted core Christian beliefs.

The philosophical landscape was a tapestry of ongoing Greek thought, influencing everything from daily ethics to the theological debates of the era. Understanding this context not only enriches our appreciation of the time but also sheds light on the intellectual environment in which early Christianity developed.

As we reflect on Paul’s legacy, it becomes clear that the synthesis of philosophy and theology in his letters offers profound insights into the relationship between reason, faith, and divine revelation.

I hope this exploration has inspired deeper understanding and reflection on the ways ancient wisdom continues to shape our spiritual journeys today.

For more insights, spiritual guidance, and resources, feel free to explore my offerings at Avyakta Skye. You’ll find services designed to support your personal and spiritual growth, from intuitive readings to energy healing and much more.

Peace and blessings,
♥️ Skye

Greek Philosophy and Its Impact on Early Christian Thought: The Case of Paul the Apostle

Greek Philosophers & Philosophical Schools of Thought

Interaction with Early Christianity